[HISTORY] The Portuguese in India 1500-1515 (A background for the project)

[Byblos]

Hi !

To give a "background" to my project "The Portuguese in India 1500-15", i wrote a text about this saga ...

An advice : read this text playing this :



Hope you will enjoy it ! 

Project description: Portuguese in India (circa 1500 - circa 1515)/ Historical context :

But why are the Portuguese trying to get to India?

In 1500, the Reconquista is definitely over: the Kingdom of Granada fell into the hands of the Spanish Monarchy (Castile & Aragon). The Kingdom of Portugal is "stuck" far in the West of Europe, it cannot extend eastward its Spanish neighbor is far too powerful. It is sparsely populated (1 million inhabitants) and cannot afford to engage large numbers of soldiers. But his nobility is turbulent, wants to shine by the arms. In the Mediterranean, Italian merchants dominate and Portuguese merchants want to open new markets. And finally, the Italian Christopher Columbus discovered in 1492 a new continent, which will be called America, on behalf of the Spanish Monarchy! Bad time!

Two ways will be presented to the Portuguese: the prolongation of the Reconquista in the Maghreb, more precisely in Morocco, where the nobility can exercise its profession of arms and bring back loot, and the exploration of the islands of the Atlantic and the coasts of the Africa, hoping to raid slaves, find some islands to colonize and exploit, and why not on the African continent find gold and other precious materials like ivory ...

Under the impetus of Prince Henry the Navigator, explorations are launched: the islands of Madeira (1419) and Azores (1427-52) are discovered, explored, colonized, exploited (Cereals and sugar): they will serve as a relay for future explorations ... On the African coast Cape Bojador is reached in 1434.

The use of Caravelles, smaller than the carrackss and in doing so having a lower draft facilitating the coastal exploration, and thanks to their rigging with Latin sails, able to go up the wind, allows the Portuguese sailors to embolden!

In 1444 Cape Verde is reached. In 1460 when Henry the Navigator died, the Portuguese reached the Gulf of Guinea.
 
In 1488, a decisive step is crossed: Bartolomeu Dias doubles the southern tip of Africa: it enters the Indian Ocean!

The explorations cease then ... for a time at least.

It is necessary to know that there exists in the court of Portugal, and will always exist, 2 opposite parties: one will deplore the expenses occasioned by these maritime expeditions and their profits by too hazardous, and the other will move in the direction of maritime expansion.

But in 1495, Manuel the First ascends the throne, after the death or the eviction of several legitimate heirs. Very pious, he considers that his elevation to the throne is a sign of God, and will tint his policy of messianism: he will resume exploration with the stated purpose of reaching India, to prevent the great Muslim power of the time - the Sultanate Mamluk - to benefit from the trade of spices (and take it back on his own), but also in the hope of making an alliance with the Christians of the East (including the mythical Priest Jean of Ethiopia) to take back the Muslim kingdoms and reclaim the Holy Land.

On July 8, 1497, Vasco de Gama with 4 ships and 200 men leaves Portugal. Performing a broad "flight" off the southern coast of Africa to avoid headwinds, he doubles the Cape of Storms on November 22, 1497, embarks  Indian or Muslim pilots encountered (they know the currents and the so particular Indian Ocean monsoon regime) in the small kingdoms of South-East Africa, and arrives in India on May 21, 1498. He will stay at Calicut, on the coast of Malabar.

The coast of Malabar and Kerala

It is important that I explain to you why the region of India where Vasco da Gama landed is so special ...

First, we do not sail from South-East Africa to India as easily as this: the Indian Ocean is subject to a very special climate regime called the Monsoon. During the winter, the winds blow from India towards Africa, and in July, and for about 3 or 4 months, they invert and blow from Africa towards India: it is during these few months that ships can pass from the coasts of Africa (or the Arabian Peninsula) to India. We must not miss this period of favorable winds, because then we must winter on the coasts of East Africa.



The monsoon also has local consequences for maritime traffic: the winds are so violent that even sailing from port to port becomes impossible!
Finally, it is the monsoon winds that decide on which coast you will arrive: if you come from the Arabian Peninsula you will land in the North, in Gujarat. If you come from Africa, you will arrive in the waters of the Coats of Malabar and you will land in Kerala, the southwest coast of India and the first land you will see in the distance will generally be Mount Eli.


(The Mount Eli)

This meteorological regime, as well as the very particular geography of Kerala, has made this region of India a true isolate. Indeed, Kerala is cut from the interior of the Indian subcontinent by a chain of mountains called the Ghats. The highest peaks rarely exceed 2000m (6000 ft), but the heights are covered with jungles and inextricable forests, the passes are rare and easily defendable, blocking the passage of armies in one direction or the other.


(The Ghâts mountains)

From these mountains descend many rivers, the coasts are cut and irrigated by these streams. The climate is hot, humid.

Kerala is not conducive to war, no empire could develop there, only small kingdoms sometimes warring on their fringes, but living mainly local productions and trade, far from the tumult of the subcontinent.




"Christians and spices", but mostly pepper and muslims in the end

One of the first men unloaded from the ships of Vasco da Gama, anonymous author of a story of this first trip to India, meets at Calicut 2 Moors from Tunis. Stunned to meet a Portuguese, they exclaim, "May the devil take you! What are you doing here !?" And he replied, "We come for Christians and spices."

Christians? The Portuguese will not find one! At least not great Christian kingdoms, but only small communities with little influence or power. Spices yes they will find, but not so much because the source of spices are in fact the East Indies, especially the famous Maluku Islands, and India, although producing its own wealth, is a (complex and not simple) relay on the road of spices ...

On the other hand, and this is a very bad surprise for the Portuguese, they will meet important and influential Muslim communities: how are they doing this?

Well, in fact, it is another particularity not so much of Kerala in particular as of the religious and social particularities of Hindu India. Hindu society is divided into castes. This division is rigid: the lower castes cannot rub the upper castes. Moreover, Hinduism considers that certain activities make the man "impure" ... in particular ... to travel by sea! The Hindu Indians cannot develop maritime trade! It was the Muslims who took control over the centuries of maritime trade! Let's add that for women of lower castes, the only way to escape their condition is ... to marry a stranger! The lower caste Indians will then marry Muslim merchants, sailors and soldiers, and their descendants will form an influential Muslim community called the Mappillas. The Portuguese will also learn to distinguish the "Mouros da Meca" (Moors of Mecca, that is to say, the Arabian Peninsula) "Mouros da India" (Moors of India, that is to say say these famous Mapillas).

The tumult of the interior

I explained to you that Kerala lived apart from the inland, and precisely what is this turmoil from the inside!

The main opposition develops between Muslims and Hinduists.

All of southern India is in the hands of the only great Hindu power of India at that time: the Vijayanagar Empire. In the center, 5 Muslim sultanates share power, including the Bijapur which owns the city of Goa (which we will talk about again). In the North, a large Muslim kingdom, the Sultanate of Delhi, will dominate until 1526 (the year of the arrival of the Mughals of Babur) alongside the sultanates of Gujarat and Bengal.
The sultanates of the Deccan are in perpetual war against the Vijayanagar, and this is of great importance to the small Hindu kingdoms of Kerala and the Portuguese!

First, the small Hindu kingdoms of Kerala will never be conquered or vassalized by the Vijayanagar, too busy against the Deccan. They will always be deferential to their powerful neighbor. Then to make war against Deccan Muslims, the Vijayanagar needs a cavalry, but the Indian climate has negative effects on horses: diseases do not heal, wounds are not healed, and reproduction is very difficult, also the small Hindu states of Kerala will serve as commercial relays to supply Arab horses to Vijayanagar (this trade will make the fortune of a city like Cannanore). Goa will be the great horse port of Bijapur.

Vasco da Gama: the one who shows the way

This first expedition of Vasco de Gama is half-hearted ...

First, the presence and influence of the Muslim communities is a bad surprise, and they do not intend to let themselves be competed by the Portuguese without reacting.

Then Vasco de Gama has not taken the measure of India and its civilization: the gifts he gives to the Zamorin of Calicut would be acceptable to a King of Black Africa, here they pale compared to those of the Muslims of the Arabian Peninsula.

And he did not understand local customs and mentalities: when he is asked a large sum of money when leaving, it is not to ransom or humiliate, it is the local customs! And when he takes Indians against their will to bring them back to Portugal, he commits a double sacrilege, because these Indians cannot feed themselves at sea by their religion, and they will defile themselves without being able to indulge in their rites of purifications that they must regularly perform on land! This will not be forgiven to the Portuguese for a long time. Mistrust has set in.
But the road is open, and the cargo of pepper, ginger and a little spice will bring big profits!

Every year now, a Portuguese fleet will visit India: it will be Armadas Da India ...

[Byblos]

Second Armada: Cabral, from Charybde to Scylla

As soon as Vasco Da Gama's expedition returned, a second armada was launched, this time with no less than 12 ships and 1,500 men, commanded by Pedro Alvarez Cabral.



By making his flight off Africa to double the tip of the continent ... he discovered Brazil!

In September 1500, the Armada arrived at Calicut. It is a young Samorin recently elevated to the throne (the precedent is dead) which welcomes the Portuguese, and a treaty of commerce is signed: the Portuguese install a factory (commercial counter) in Calicut and begin to buy pepper and spices and to load their ships ...


(The Zamorin of Calicut)

But the situation will degenerate ...

The Mapillas and the Arab merchants have a very bad opinion of these Portuguese now become real commercial competitors: thanks to their influence, they manage to dissuade intermediaries from selling their goods to the Portuguese, and they struggle to fill their holds .

Cabral complains to the Samorin, begging him to intervene on his behalf, but the Samorin refuses and Cabral believes that he is in agreement with the Muslim merchants. But once again the ignorance of Indian customs misleads the Portuguese: Indian rulers are accustomed not to meddle in commercial affairs, and to favor no party!

Furious Cabral seized an Arab merchant ship, the Muslim merchants reacted by provoking a riot and the Portuguese factory was destroyed, several dozen Portuguese were killed.

The Samorin, helpless or overwhelmed by events, did not react: Cabral seized Muslim merchant ships, confiscated their cargoes, executed the crews, and burned the ships, then for a day, the fleet bombards Calicut, causing a large number of victims and considerable damage!

The Portuguese and the Kingdom of Calicut will be at war for the next 10 years ...

But what to do now! The Portuguese have no more factories (Calicut is the main port of spices in Kerala!) Nor ally in India: everything is to start again!

The Portuguese will therefore contact the Kingdom of Cochin, an unhappy rival of the Kingdom of Calicut. The Raja (king) of Cochin, delighted by the misfortunes of his competitor, welcomed the Portuguese with joy and a treaty of commerce and defense is signed. Of course, the warehouses of Cochin are less full than those of Calicut, but the Portuguese can set up a factory and complete their cargo of spices and pepper. The neighboring kingdom of Cannanore even offers them a cargo of ginger, certainly of poor quality, but the gesture is appreciated. The Muslim merchants of Cochin are also trying to drive out the Portuguese but Raja, anxious to preserve his alliance against Calicut with the Portuguese, has put these under his protection.

Again, the result of the Portuguese Armada is half-hearted: the Portuguese are now well aware that if there are Christians in India, they are small communities with little influence. The losses in ships (many are lost in the Cape of Good Hope, including one commanded by the famous Bartolomeu Dias!) And men are important. The war against Calicut will rage for 10 years But, at least, an alliance was concluded with Cochin, a factory installed, contacts made with Cannanore, and the shipment of spices brought back will generate big profits ...

The Portuguese, slowly but surely, are starting to find a place in India ...

[Byblos]

The third Armada: Joao Da Nova, the first tumults

The 3rd Armada is much more modest: 4 ships, 400 men including only 80 soldiers. It must be said that the 2nd Armada has not yet returned at the time of departure, and that Cabral is supposed to have made peace with Calicut. The 3rd Armada therefore aims to trade with Calicut, then return the holds full. In Lisbon it is not yet known that Portugal is at war with Calicut now!

But on the road, Da Nova will be made aware: indeed the captains, along the sea routes leading to India, have the habit of leaving written messages at the various water points to which the crews have access. And it is shortly after the passage of the Cape of Good Hope, the Aguada Sao Bras, that in a shoe Da Nova will take notice of a message left there by Pero Da Ataide, a captain of 2d Armada, on the way back. The note warns the Portuguese captains: the war is declared against Calicut, but Cochin and Cannanore are now friendly ports.

In India, Da Nova will travel to Cannanore and Cochin. The Portuguese will have a hard time filling their holds because at Malabar the spices pay themselves mainly in silver, of which they do not have large quantities available, and the Portuguese goods are sold poorly (they also suspect the Muslim merchants of boycotting them). Fortunately Raja de Cannanore will vouch for them and the ships will be at least partially loaded. The Portuguese also engage in piracy on the coast of Malabar and seize several merchant ships of Calicut or Arabs.

December 31, 1501, as the Armada prepares to leave Cannanore to return to Portugal, a fleet of Calicut war appears offshore: it is the first time since their arrival in India that the Portuguese face a fleet of regular war enemy. 40 large ships and about 180 small against 4 Portuguese carracks. The wind being in his favor, Da Nova decides to try to force the blockade: his artillery will be wonderful, and after 2 days of battle, the enemy fleet, which suffered heavy losses, flee the fight, the Portuguese losses are light.

In September 1502, the 3rd Armada is back in Lisbon, the holds loaded with pepper, cinnabar, ginger, and other spices.

Still a half-hearted balance sheet for this Armada, which had a hard time loading, and still incompletely, his holds! The naval victory against Calicut is, however, brilliant!

But the 4th Armada, under the command of Vasco da Gama, has already left, on February 10, 1502 ...

[Byblos]

The 4th Armada: Vasco Da Gama, the revenge

The 4th Armada is assigned a very clear objective: to finally defeat Calicut!

The Da Gama family dominates this powerful fleet of 20 ships and nearly 1800 men: Vasco, his uncle Vicente Sodré and his cousin Estavao Da Gama each command one of the 3 squadrons. The Estavao carrack is the largest built to date, and measures 400 tons.



Arrived in mid-August 1502 in India, Da Gama engaged first in piracy against Arab ships and Calicut. And a particularly bloody episode is going to take place. Spotting a large merchant ship from Calicut, the Portuguese hunt him down. The Miri belongs to a rich merchant of Calicut, he is unarmed and goes quickly. On board, more than 300 people, most pilgrims returning from Mecca, men women and children. The ship is looted, then Vasco Da Gama orders that it be bombarded and sunk, with all its passengers on board. Vasco Da Gama will present his act as an act of revenge after the massacre of the Portuguese factory Calicut in 1500, but even among the Portuguese, the act will be considered particularly cruel, and the hatred of the Portuguese is growing in India ...

On October 18, 1502, the Portuguese landed at Cannanore and this time, Da Gama had sumptuous gifts for Raja! The negotiations are stormy, but finally a commercial treaty is signed, and a factory installed in Cannanore.

Having set up a factory in Cannanore and Cochin, in open warfare with Calicut, the Portuguese strengthen their grip on the Malabar coast, and set up the “Cartaz” system: henceforth any ship wishing to trade on the Malabar coast will have to first obtain the written authorization of a Portuguese Factor!

The Portuguese then leave Cannanore to finish with Calicut. The Samorin sends messengers, expressing his desire for peace, negotiations begin. Da Gama demands a large compensation and Muslim traders are expelled from Calicut. The Samorin retorts that according to the customs, he cannot meddle with quarrels between merchants.

Negotiations drag on, Da Gama orders the seizure of merchant and fishing ships whose crews are taken prisoner. The Samorin says that he will not drive out Muslim merchants and that Da Gama must release his prisoners. Da Gama sends an ultimatum to the Samorin, who has erected fortifications filled with artillery on the beaches.

The next day, November 1, 1502, at dawn, Da Gama hangs his prisoners on the masts of his ships. Then, the dismayed inhabitants having massed on the beach, it makes open fire and, all the day, bombs the beaches of Calicut: the fortifications and the artillery are destroyed, the houses of the poorest, huts built on the beaches , are destroyed. As night falls, the hands and feet of the hanged are sliced, piled in a boat thrown towards the beach, with a message of insults to the Samorin.

On November 2, all day, the bombing resumed. This time it is the city itself that is targeted, the damage is considerable. Then on November 3, Vasco Da Gama sets sail, the Portuguese leave behind a city with fire and blood, and a flotilla to ensure the blockade of Calicut.

On the shores of Malabar, it's stupor ...

The months of November and December are spent in Cochin, where Vasco Da Gama strengthens the commercial treaty with Raja, and has the holds filled with its ships.

At the beginning of January 1503, a brahman came to Vasco Da Gama, accompanied by his son and his nephew: they were envoys of Calicut, carriers of new offers of peace of the Samorin. Da Gama takes command of his most powerful carrack - the Flor De La Mar - and goes to Calicut where, during 4 days, new negotiations take place. But at the dawn of the 4th day, the ship is surrounded by a hundred small warships, who took advantage of the night to approach the Flor De La Mar: the enemy is too close, the artillery is unusable, it is with crossbows and arquebuses that the Portuguese will have to defend themselves. A fireship is even launched on their ship. Finally, having no choice but to break the chains of their anchors, the Portuguese manage to break the enemy line, and to distance them enough to finally open the fire of their artillery and put them to flight, but the battle has been rough!

Before leaving Calicut, Vasco Da Gama hanged the Brahmin (A sacrilegious act!) And his 2 parents to the masts of his ship, in view of the city, then had their bodies placed on a boat launched towards the shore ...

At the end of January 1503, Vasco Da Gama learned that the Samorin had formed a powerful war fleet, joining the services of a famous corsair of the Red Sea: Khoja Ambar. There are no less than 20 large warships, 40 sambuks equipped with artillery, and dozens of small rowing ships carrying thousands of men in arms, which the Samorin has gathered!

The Raja of Cochin suggests Da Gama leave the Malabar quickly and return to Portugal without lingering, but Da Gama refuses to flee the fight: with its 10 carracks heavily loaded with various goods, joined by the 5 caravels of Vincente Sodré he sets sail for Cannanore, passing off Calicut.

Soon the enemy fleet is spotted: the Portuguese first concentrate their shots on large enemy ships, quickly sank or crippled. Although their Arab allies are defeated, the Malabari attempt to approach the Portuguese carracks as soon as possible, limiting their exposure time to the maximum enemy fire and confident in their numerical superiority, but the light Portuguese caravels intercept them, and the Malabari admiral ship is caught! This is too much and the Malabaris are dispersing, many sambuks are caught and set on fire.

Da Gama can not linger still in India and at the end of February 1503, he sets sail for Portugal where he will arrive in September: he took care to leave his uncle Vincente Sodré at the head of a flotilla of caravels, to ensure the protection of its factories and allies against the Calicut Samorin and the pirates of Malabar.

Once again, it is a half-hearted result: if the commercial influence of the Portuguese on the Malabar coast begins to be felt, if the Portuguese ships return loaded with spices, if they have undeniably proved their superiority military (I will come back to it), it is by showing a cruelty and violence rarely seen in the region, and which fuels hatred against the Portuguese. And the Samorin of Calicut has clearly shown his will to resist at all costs ...



As for the caravels of Vincente Sodré ... This one, disobeying the orders given by Da Gama, goes to the Red Sea to practice piracy ... and during that time, in April 1503, the Samorin of Calicut invades the Kingdom of Cochin in the head of an army of 50,000 men! The Cochinese Prince Narayan is killed in action, a part of the Cochinese army is bribed by the enemy who soon seizes Cochin and burns the city! It's a disaster ! Rthe aja, the Portuguese of Cochin and some faithful Nayars (A caste of Hindu warriors) manage to flee in the islands of the lagoon, and escape the enemy for several months ...

The caravels of Vincente Sodré have made some catches ... then the captains compete for the sharing of the booty and we approach the mutiny. At the end of April 1503, the caravels are caught in a storm off Oman and 2 are lost body and well, including that of Sodré who loses his life. In the summer of 1503, the remaining ships arrive at the Angedive Islands where the sailors undertake the necessary long repairs ...

It is this precarious situation that will find at his arrival the 5th Armada ...

[Byblos]

The 5th Armada: Afonso da Albuquerque, the disaster

The 5th Armada is commanded by Afonso Da Albuquerque, a character who, but not immediately, will change the course of the destiny of the Portuguese Empire of India, we will talk about it again. For now, he will pale! Less powerful than the previous Armada of Vasco Da Gama, the 5th has 10 ships, some of which, lost on the way or sunk during storms, will not even reach India!

The first ships arrived in August 1503, under the command of Francisco Da Albuquerque, cousin of Afonso, and found the surviving caravels of the flotilla of Vincente Sodré healing their wounds. Francisco takes command of all the ships, and goes to Cannanore, joined by another ship of the 5th Armada, that of Duarte Pacheco Pereira. It is there that they learn that Calicut's army destroyed Cochin and that Raja, the Portuguese of Cochin and a small guard of Nayars are besieged on the island of Vypin. The squadron of 8 warships sets sail for Cochin, and its arrival leads to the retreat of Calicut's army.

The Raja of Cochin is now well aware that the durability of his kingdom depends on his alliance with the Portuguese: they are therefore allowed to build a fort (wood, then stones in 1505) within which in 1504 the first Catholic Church in India will be built. This fort will bear the name of Santiago, named after the Military Order which includes Afonso Da Albuquerque and his cousin Francisco.

In October 1503, Afonso Da Albuquerque arrives in India: the priority of the Portuguese will then be to load their spice vessels, difficult task because on the one hand Cochin is destroyed and on the other hand the Samorin of Calicut uses all the possible means to dissuade the delivery of spices to the Portuguese.

So that after negotiations, a peace is signed with Calicut in mid-December 1503! The Samorin has not managed to eliminate his rival Raja Cochin, now protected by a fort and a Portuguese garrison, and they fail to fill their holds, and it must be admitted that Calicut remains THE great port of trade of the coast of Malabar, and the Samorin offers a large quantity of pepper to the Portuguese! But this peace will be short-lived, and the state of war will resume soon ...

In fact, Afonso Da Albuquerque will turn to Quilon, a city further south, which has the advantage of being neutral and can provide a lot of spices. Moreover, Quilon had already offered his spices to the previous Armadas and Portuguese ships had done business there. Afonso Da Albuquerque will sign a trade agreement there, and be able to install a factory there, the 3rd installed in India by the Portuguese after Cochin and Cannanore, which will be protected by a garrison of 20 soldiers.

In Cochin, it will be 150 soldiers who will be left in garrison, under the command of Duarte Pacheco Pereira, and a flotilla of 2 caravels and a carrack.

Then in February 1504, it is the return journey that begins: it will turn to disaster! Storms, long periods without wind, will disperse and decimate the Armada: Francisco Da Albuquerque and Nicolau Cauelho (a veteran of the first 2 Armadas) are notably lost at sea. September 16, 1504, what remains of the Armada - 2 ships and a few dozen men including Afonso Da Albuquerque - arrive in Lisbon. In total, 5 ships are lost, and hundreds of men have died since departure.

This 5th Armada is a failure: Cochin is weakly trimmed by the Portuguese, and the Samorin of Calicut will not miss the opportunity to take revenge.

[Byblos]

The 6th Armada: Lopo Soares Da Albegaria, the war against Calicut

The 6th Armada is assembled on the faith of the reports of the 4th (Vasco Da Gama): it is therefore a powerful fleet of a dozen ships, mainly large carracks and some caravels, mounted by 1200 men. His mission is to come back loaded with spices, and protect the factories of Cochin and Cannanore, the caravels will remain in India in a flotilla of protection. Lopo Soares must not make peace with Calicut and bring him harm by any means.

Sailing April 22, 1504, the Armada arrives in good order in India, in Anjedive, in August. In early September, she is in Cannanore where Lopo Soares learns that there was a terrible battle in Cochin! The Samorin of Calicut, at the head of an army of 60,000 men, with Turkish and Venetian cannons, fought hard on Fort Santiago and its 150 Portuguese commanded by Duarte Pacheco Pereira who relentlessly resisted from March to July 1504: the humiliated Samorin finally sounded the retreat !!!


(Duarte Pacheco Peraira)

On September 7, 1504, the Armada is in Calicut where Lopo Soares demands the release of Portuguese prisoners and the handing over of two Venetian cannon founders in the service of the Samorin. The Samorin is absent, his advisers agree to release their prisoners but refuse to deliver the Venetians: for 2 days, the Armada then bombards Calicut, causing enormous damage!

Then cap is put on Cochin, to congratulate and relieve the exhausted Portuguese garrison. A large sum of money is given to Raja by King Manuel I, to honor the Alliance, then the Portuguese undertake to fill the holds of their ships. But the recent fighting has not allowed Cochin to acquire enough spices and, while ships will load Quilon, others engage in piracy in the waters of Calicut.

Lopo Soares learns that the Samorin is fortifying his Cranganore port, surely to make it a base for an upcoming attack from Cochin: he decides to launch a pre-emptive strike. 10 Portuguese warships, dozens of small Cochinese warships, 1000 Portuguese soldiers and 1000 Cochinese are mobilized for the attack. While the carracks, too heavy to enter the estuary of Cranganore, are anchored, caravels and small boats Cochineses, supported by the fire of their artillery, disembark their troops who quickly defeat the forces of Calicut, then plunder and burn Cranganore. A flotilla rescue from Calicut is picked by the carracks anchored at the entrance to the Cranganore estuary and dryly beaten. Finally, the ruler of Tanore, a small kingdom between Calicut and Cranganore, vassal of Calicut, is angry with his sovereign: he offers the Portuguese to join their alliance in exchange for military assistance. A flotilla and troops were sent to him, and the allied army thus formed repulsed an army of Calicut descending towards Cranganore.

At the end of December 1504, while the Armada was anchored in Cannanore, Lopo Soares learned that an Arab transport fleet was anchored in Pandarane, a port north of Calicut. This fleet is responsible for evacuating the wealthy Arab merchants of Calicut and their families. Anticipating the possibility of a rich booty, Lopo Soares decides to attack. His carracks being too heavily loaded, it is with 2 caravels and 15 small Malabari warships, mounted by 360 Portuguese soldiers that Lopo Soares melts on the surprise enemy fleet at the port: the Arab ships are taken and looted, but at the price of heavy Portuguese losses.

In early January 1505, the Armada sails to Lisbon: are left behind 1 carrak and 2 caravels to defend the factories and allies Portuguese. Apart from this flotilla, Lopo Soares takes with him all the ships that have remained in India so far and arrives - in July 1505 - in Portugal with more ships than he commanded when leaving !

This 6th Armada is clearly a success: the profits from the sale of spices are very important, Calicut is clearly weakened, several times defeated on land and sea, its feudal network begins to wither, the Arab merchants evacuate its ports. But it is precisely this success of the Portuguese that will attract a new opponent, the Mamelukes. They see their revenues related to trade with India drastically reduced because of the action of the Portuguese, and they will react ...

[Byblos]

The 7th Armada: D. Francisco Da Almeida, the consolidation

This Armada marks a turning point: Almeida will carry the official title of Viceroy of the Indies (he is accompanied by a secretary and a lawyer), establish a network of fortress, and now permanently fleets of Portuguese warships will ensure all year protection of their factories and allies in India.

So far, six months of the year (from August to January), the presence in India of the annual Portuguese Armada, its warships, sailors and soldiers, ensured the protection of their interests, but once for another month (from December to July), rivals and enemies could attack the poorly defended Portuguese trading posts and their allies: Cochin had painfully paid for that.

Calicut's Samorin is certainly weakened, but not defeated. Through Venice (!) and the Turks, he was able to improve the quality of his artillery. It lacks one more thing to compete with the Portuguese and drive them off the coast of Malabar and Kerala: a war fleet worthy of the name. And it is a new ally who will bring him: the Mamlukes of Egypt. These are worried about the amount of spices going through their harbors to shrink (and the amount of taxes levied with them!), So they decide to react, and begin to prepare a mighty naval expedition.

The Armada of 1505 is a powerful fleet composed of more than 20 ships (including a dozen large carracks) carrying in their flanks a thousand sailors and 1500 soldiers!



Almeida's mission is to build strongholds and end the state of war with Calicut (by force or persuasion!). The carracks will have to return loaded with spices, and the caravels will remain in India to ensure the protection of the Portuguese and their allies. Everything must be done to "welcome" the Mamlukes who will be pointing out their hulls in the months or years to come ...

On September 13, 1505, the Armada arrives at the island of Anjedive, India. Anjedive is a strategic position, already visited by Vasco Da Gama once. The island is located off the border between the Bijapur Sultanate and the Hindu states of Kerala (and the Vijayanagar Empire). North on the coast of Bijapur is Goa, an important city that we will talk about again. But for the moment Almeida has built a fort - Fort Sao Miguel - and a church. A garrison of 80 men will be stationed there, assisted by a flotilla of small rowing ships.

Tensions are quickly settling with the 2 main cities of the coast: Batecala and especially Onor, a nest of pirates. The Portuguese lead a raid on Onor, manage to sack the port, and the governor asks for peace. The chief pirate leader, Timoji, who had already posed a problem to Vasco Da Gama, recognizes himself as vassal of the King of Portugal. This Timoji is a character who, as we will see later, will do many services to the Portuguese!

On October 24, 1505, the Armada plows towards Cannanore. Almeida built a fort there - Fort Sant'Angelo. The garrison will be 150 men (we clearly note the rise in power of the Portuguese), assisted by a flotilla of 2 caravels.

Almeida then opens his credentials and officially becomes the first Viceroy of the Portuguese Indies, for a term of 3 years.


(Almeida)

Symbolic moment if any, Almeida will receive in Cannanore an official embassy of the Vijayanagar Emperor, Narsinga. This shows how much the Portuguese are now firmly established in India and have become full players in the commercial and diplomatic relations of Kerala and Malabar coasts. A defensive Alliance is concluded, the Emperor wanting in particular to ensure his supply of war horses, essential to his armies.

But a serious event will come to blacken this picture: in Quilon, the Portuguese factor Antonio De Sa is struggling with the authorities. Muslim merchants arrived with their ships on business, and Antonio tried unsuccessfully to convince Quilon's leaders to expel them without further ado. Then arrives a flotilla of caravels under the command of Joao Homem. Antonio de Sa is working with him and the Muslim ships are approached, their yards cut, their masts shot down. The authorities of Quilon are furious! As soon as the Portuguese ships left, a riot broke out against the Portuguese who were massacred.

Almeida, who is now living in Cochin, is learning of this disaster, and the aggravating role played by Joao Homem who is removed from his command. Almeida sends a squadron, consisting of carracks and caravels, to Quilon under the command of his son Lourenço, hoping for a peaceful resolution to the crisis, but the Portuguese are not even allowed to disembark and Quilon strengthens his defenses. Lourenço then bombards the city, and burns the merchant ships anchored in the harbor, then returns to Cannanore.

This is a blow for the Portuguese who lose one of the 3 factories so far established in Kerala (the remaining 2 in Cochin and Cannanore)!

In Cochin, Almeida has strengthened the defenses and garrison of Fort Manuel. He symbolically presents a crown of gold, present of King Manuel of Portugal, to the new ruler of Cochin (the former has abdicated), thus making him a vassal of the Portuguese crown and ending the bond of vassalage of Cochin with Calicut.

In January 1506, the carracks - full holds - return to Lisbon, the last ships arriving safely in December 1506.



The 7th Armada is a real success: a Portuguese State of India (Estado Da India) was born, solidly defended by fortresses and war flotillas.
Viceroy D. Francisco Da Almeida is established in Cochin, Allied Kingdom. The carracks are back loaded with spices and the profits are important. Only one shadow on the board: the loss of the Quilon factory. But clouds are piling up in the sky of Estado Da India.

Then, like a thunderclap in a serene sky, will emerge the one who will mark the turning point of our story: Afonso Da Albuquerque!

[Byblos]

Interlude:

Phew! Let's rest a little! Let's take this opportunity to discuss a subject that I have not talked about so far, it will allow me to make you understand how Afonso Da Albuquerque will change the situation!

I have already explained to you that in Portugal, two "currents" clashed: one advocating expansion in the Maghreb, in a sort of extension of the Reconquista, the other advocating overseas expansion, on the trade of spices and profits generated, this project is coupled with the messianic project of King Manuel.

But there is a second line of confrontation, within the overseas expansion project itself!

For some, the Estado Da India must above all be a commercial enterprise: the Armadas must leave each year and return loaded with spices, generating big profits for the crown and his servants. In India, the Portuguese must above all interfere in the existing commercial channels and diplomatic networks: to chase the "Mouros Da Mecca" of the country, certainly, but nothing more. Erect some fortresses, only a handful, not to burden the expenses of the state, just enough to ensure the defense of some factories. They also think that a king should not meddle in commerce, and that these things should as much as possible be left to private interests which will pay the taxes due to the Crown. In short, with a small investment, reap big profits. This vision is particularly borne by the "old" nobility of Portuguese blood, under the influence of the Spanish Crown. A project that could be described as mercantilist.

For others, often young Fidalgos (Nobles, the equivalent of the Spanish Hidalgo) recent titles won in the service of the king, and whose swords burn out of the scabbard, we must go further! Why not establish a trade monopoly? It means to drive out Indian Muslims, be they "Mouros Da Mecca" or "Mouros Da India", seize the hotspots for the trade and strategic for the war, it means especially more ships of wars, more sailors, more soldiers, more conquests, more fortresses, in short, more of everything, and above all more expenses and less profit! But also more glory and fame! As for trade, if the Crown must allow some private investors to participate (and there are already some: Genoese, Florentines, Flemings and Germans), it must exercise a real monopoly, and arrogate to itself the share of lion! A project that today we would call imperialist.

And these two somewhat contradictory visions clash since the beginning of the adventure in India!

Viceroy Da Almeida, for example, is rather a mercantilist. King Manuel is rather imperialist. And in 1506, he will send to India, in the 8th Armada under the command of Tristao Da Cunha, a Fidalgo who strongly shares his vision of things: Afonso Da Albuquerque. And Afonso da Albuquerque carries with him a sealed letter of the royal arms, letter which makes of him the successor of Da Almeida to the position of Viceroy of the Indies!

Ah yes ! You will tell me: but! The King is the King! It is he who decides what needs to be done, and his vision must prevail on the ground! Yes, except that Estado Da India is months away from Lisbon and the King! That the Portuguese are only a handful, that their even consolidated positions from now on remain precarious, that the Armadas who leave each year do not have the time to await the return of the previous, and that Once in India, the Capitao-mor (Captain-Major = Commander-in-Chief) can find a situation so upset that the King's instructions become immediately obsolete by force of circumstances, and it is then these Captains-Major who take the decisions that are needed, and they can decide to favor one or the other of the two visions of Estado Da India. In short, far from the eyes, far from the heart! And necessity makes law!

[/u]

[Byblos]

Afonso Da Albuquerque: in the Red Sea

The man who has made his mark in this story, I will not continue this story by articulating it around the different armadas, but by articulating it now around Albuquerque, and events marking the Estado Da India during the years that He goes to India.

Albuquerque embarks for India with the 8th Armada on April 6, 1506: he is certainly not the Major Captain of the expedition but has received the command of the "Fleet of the Arabian Sea" of which the goal is to seize Ormuz, the main trading city of the Red Sea, and destroy the Arab-Muslim merchant fleets.

The Armada will encounter many setbacks on its way, and it is only in April 1507, one year after its departure, that it reaches the island of Socotra, which is conquered in the wake, and where is built a Fort. But the island is poor and offers few resources: the men are exhausted, sick, ships very damaged by long months of sailing, the Armada is split in 2. Tristao Da Cunha leaves to India , Albuquerque sails towards the Red Sea, hoping to patch up men and ships at the expense of Arab merchant cities and ships, and with the main objective Ormuz.

From August to September 1507, the squadron of Albuquerque will submit the cities Omani (Qalhat, Qurayyat, Muscat, Sohar and Khor Fakkan).
 
On September 26, 1507 the squadron appears off Ormuz.



Albuquerque proposes the surrender of the city without combat. The legitimate ruler being 12 years old, the effective power is in the hands of a vizier who, noting that the Portuguese have only a small squadron already tired of 5 or 6 ships (It remains barely 450 Portuguese in state to fight), refuses and prepares to resist. Portuguese ships are quickly surrounded by a fleet of about 50 armed merchant ships, including a large Gujarati carrack, and between 100 and 200 small Ormuzi rowing boats, mounted by Persian mercenary archers. But Albuquerque knows that his artillery and his arquebuses are far superior to the enemy's weapons, and the Portuguese shoot in the pile, wreaking havoc! Once the enemy disorganized, they counterattack, taking the boarding or burning many enemy ships, including the big carrrack Gujarati, then land in the shipyards, leading the surrender of the Vizier ...

Albuquerque then obtained the vassalage of Ormuz to the King of Portugal, and began to build a fort, but soon, the situation turns to vinegar. The men are exhausted, some captains are defecting (it was perhaps not a good idea to have them work alongside the sailors at the construction of the fort, under the hot sun!?) And join India with their ships and crews, local resistance is important and from the hinterland many mercenaries come to strengthen the Ormuzi army.

In April 1508, with the two ships still able to sail, he had to leave Ormuz. After practicing piracy for some time in the Gulf of Aden, he sails for India: it is for the moment a failure for Albuquerque, who swears to return submit Ormuz!

In December 1508, Albuquerque arrives at Cannanore.

[Byblos]

Kerala and Malabar coast 1506/1507

More than 2 years have passed since the departure of Albuquerque from Lisbon, and his tribulations in the Red Sea: in India, many events took place ...

First, under the pressure of Adil Shâh troops from Bijapur, the Portuguese had to abandon the fort and the island of Anjedive.

In March 1506, Calicut's Samorin still tries his luck! Helped by Italian mercenaries, he improved the quality of his artillery, assembled a fleet of 200 small warships, mounted by Indians, Arabs and Turks, and this fleet sails towards Cannanore ... where a Portuguese flotilla under the command of the Viceroy's son - Lourenço Da Almeida - puts her to flight! Still missed!

The situation is going to fester again in Cannanore in 1507. The merchants Mapillas (local Muslims) of Cannanore have never really accepted the tutelage of the Portuguese who divert a large part of the commercial traffic towards their ally of Cochin where they installed their main factory. The safe-conduct system, preventing trade with Calicut, smothers Cannanore. With the death of the Raja ally of the Portuguese, the Samorin of Calicut exerts enough pressure to bring to power a Raja much more hostile to the Portuguese, and favorable to the Mapillas and Calicut. A serious incident will trigger the revolt: off the Mount Eli, the Portuguese control a Sambuq whose safe conduct does not seem in order. The captain protests, thinking of Cannanore, but the Portuguese suspects him of Calicut: the crew is thrown into the sea, the ship confiscated and towed to Cochin. A few days later, some bodies of the drowned run aground on the beach of Cannanore: anger rumbling. Among the bodies, that of a nephew of an important leader: Mamale de Cannanore.

 This Mamale is one of the leaders of the Mapilla de Cannanore trading community, but he has the distinction of having founded - discreetly - a small state in the Maldive Islands, a vast archipelago 300 km south-west of Calicut. The Maldives have a certain importance for navigation on the coast of Malabar: it produces dried fish, ideal for feeding sailors, excellent ropes, pitch to caulk hulls, and small shells that can serve as a small change . It's not a good idea to make it an enemy! No !



The rebellion broke out on April 27, 1507: this time it was not only the Mapillas militias who were part of it, but also the Raja de Cannanore warriors - the Nayars - and the troops sent by the Samorin, as well as artillery. For four months, the 150 men of the Portuguese garrison will be besieged in the fort by an enemy infinitely higher in number (Between 40 000 and 60 000 men). The assaults follow each other, but the Portuguese firepower and their impregnable position allows them to repel all attacks. The besiegers dig trenches, and protect themselves by erecting walls of cotton balls. The Portuguese are starting to starve. The sick and wounded can no longer be properly cared for. On August 15, miraculously, hundreds of lobsters are stranded on the beaches inaccessible to the besiegers, under the walls of the defenders who can enjoy the manna. But it is mainly the ships of the 8th Armada, appearing off the 27th of August, which will decide the battle. 300 Portuguese soldiers are disembarked, the siege is lifted and the new Raja forced to sign peace and renew the treaties.

And here is a new threat, expected certainly, looming: the Mamelukes war fleet arrives in India! Embarking 1,500 fighters, it consists of 6 large carracks (equivalent to that of the Portuguese) and 6 galeasses (large galleys), all under the command of Admiral Mirocem. Sailed in February 1507, after having submitted the city of Jeddah in the Arabian Sea, it is anchored in 1508 in the Gujarati allied port of Diu. Gujarati Admiral Malik Ayyaz joins the Mamelukes with a fleet of 40 galleys.

The Portuguese forces are then dispersed, and only a relatively weak squadron, under the command of Lourenço, son of the Viceroy D. Francisco Da Almeida, composed of 3 carrakss and 5 caravels, is able to try to stop them. The meeting takes place in March 1508 in Chaul south of Diu. But this time the Portuguese are no longer dealing with mere small Indian warships, the enemy has large ships and artillery worthy of the name, more is higher in number. The losses are terrible on both sides, the ship of Lourenço Da Almeida sinks bodies and goods altogether and this time it is indeed a naval defeat for the Portuguese. But the Mamluk fleet is so badly mauled that it takes refuge in Diu, and that it will undertake no more offensive action, the crews dispersing and the rotting ships.

The news of this defeat is a terrible shock for the Portuguese, now under the threat of the Mamluk fleet (they have no knowledge of the extent of the damage to the enemy) and a terrible shock for Viceroy D. Francisco Da Almeida whose son was killed during the battle! But the monsoon is approaching, and until September navigation will be impossible on the Indian Ocean. All that the Viceroy can do is to concentrate his ships at Cochin at the end of the monsoon, and prepare them for Diu and the Mamluk fleet ...

It was in these dark times that Albuquerque arrived in December, 1508 (bad timing !). He immediately presented his credentials to the Viceroy, letters which made him his successor. But Almeida refuses to give him the place! First his term ended in January 1509. Then the captains who defected to Ormuz in 1507 have been with the Viceroy for many months already, and have intentionally blackened the reputation of Albuquerque. Finally Almeida has a personal vengeance to exercise on Mirocem for the death of his son Lourenço, and wants to stay in office as the Mamluk fleet will not be permanently out of harm's way.

Leaving Albuquerque at Cochin, Almeida took command of the Portuguese fleet (about twenty ships including a dozen carracks, and 1200 soldiers) which is heading north. In Anjedive, where the Portuguese refuel in fresh water, Almeida receives the visit of the privateer Timoji who informs him of the enemy positions. This is where the Portuguese fleet is attacked by ships of Dabul, a coastal city of the Bijapur Sultanate.
The Portuguese fleet then goes to Dabul, where a small troop sent for reconnaissance is attacked by an enemy force ambushed and massacred! The vengeance of the Portuguese is then terrible: landing in force, they shave Dabul and ransack the surrounding countryside, slaughtering indifferently combatants, men, women and children, and even livestock! This act recalls the worst atrocities of Cabral or Vasco Da Gama.

Meanwhile, in Diu, Mirocem in willinfull again: he received 300 men in reinforcements, was able to repair his ships including a very big carrack. Calicut's Samorin sent a large squadron of light warships as reinforcement. Malik Ayyaz is more hesitant: his relations have deteriorated with Mirocem, the Mameluke presence is increasingly heavy, the Portuguese come in force and, in view of the massacre of Dabul, are not willing to make neighborhood in case of victory.

On February 2, 1509, the Portuguese are in sight of Diu. Malik Ayyaz left the city and will not fight, Mirocem commands the enemy fleet whose ships remain wisely anchored in the waters of Diu, under the protection of the artillery of the fort. The Portuguese have no choice but to attack enemy ships at the port. They concentrate their attack on the Mamluks and Diu carracks, while the flagship - the large, heavily armed carrack "Flor Do Mar" - remotely keeps Calicut's light ships (which are rapidly fleeing) and Diu. The opposing carracks are boarded by the Portuguese, while the caravels attack the Mameloukes galeasses at the boarding or destroying them with guns. The battle lasts from the end of the morning until dusk, but the Portuguese victory is total. At the price of about 300 wounded or killed, the Portuguese killed the 450 Mameluke fighters and sailors, and 1300 of their Gujarati allies, the enemy ships - except the squadron of Calicut who fled - are all sunk or captured.
The Mamluk threat removed, Almeida and Malik Ayyaz make peace: the Portuguese conclude a trade agreement with Diu and install a factory there. A large sum is extorted from the merchants of the city who helped restore the Mamluk fleet after the Battle of Chaul.




The Viceroy does not give up his place so far, and the animosity between him and Albuquerque increasing, he sent him in custody to Cannanore!

Albuquerque will remain confined until November 1509, at the arrival of the Marshal of Portugal - D. Fernando Coutinho - at the head of a great Armada and 3000 soldiers. Albuquerque then officially takes over from Francisco Da Almeida as Viceroy of the Indies, second to carry this title: will follow 6 terrible years alternating war and diplomacy !

[Byblos]

Goa 1510: water, fire, blood

Albuquerque has received instructions from King Manuel to seize Ormuz and Malacca, in short, to get hold of the two ends of the trading network of which India is the central hub, and to expel the Muslims - be they Mamluks, Arabs or Gujarati, from this network! And in India, on the coasts of Malabar and Kerala, Albuquerque has instructions to assure the Portuguese position of strength, including submitting definitively Calicut, the sworn enemy.

In January 1510, the first attempt against Calicut, near the disaster: Marshal Fernando Coutinho enters the city where he finds himself trapped and ambushed. Albuquerque is obliged to intervene with his body of troops and the Portuguese prefer to withdraw the affair being too badly engaged. Coutinho has been killed !

For Albuquerque, it will not be taken over: at the risk of making enemies, he will now act with an iron fist, commandeering the ships and soldiers of other Capitao-mor disdaining their protests. He will also cleverly use his informants and allies (Especially Timoji the corsair) to spread false rumors and learn as much information about his goals.

Albuquerque then undertakes to gather ships and troops to conduct an expedition in the Red Sea and to seize permanently Ormuz: 23 warships and 1600 soldiers, as well as Malabari auxiliaries and slaves-soldiers. The squadron sets off and mid-February is anchored at Onor where the Corsair and Portuguese ally Timoji talks with Albuquerque.

Timoji explains that in Goa, the survivors of Diu's defeat in 1509 began to assemble and rebuild a war fleet. Moreover, the Sultan of Bijapur has just died and his successor, Adil Shah Ismail, is still uncertain about his power, while Bijapur is in full war with the Vijayanagar. Finally, Bijapur only conquered Goa in 1496, destroying the ancient Hindu city, and the indigenous population has difficulty with the Muslim yoke. Albuquerque manages to convince his captains to change their goal: Goa will be conquered!

It must be said that Goa is a very interesting goal: it is the port where the Sultanate of Bijapur receives horses from the Arabian Peninsula! Moreover, it would be the first Indian city where the Portuguese alone would exercise power, which would make it the real capital of Estado Da India and thus ensure a real independence. But, and this is not a detail, Goa is not part of the goals designated by the King (Aden, Ormuz & Malacca)!

But the conquest of Goa will prove much longer and more difficult than expected, judge rather ...

Goa is located on the southern and western coast of India, on the border between the Muslim Sultanate of Bijapur and the Hindu states of Kerala. It is a fortified city although its ramparts are described by the Portuguese as "low and fragile". Built on the north-eastern shore of the island of Tiswari, an island separated from the mainland by the Mandovi River to the north and Zuari river to the south, rivers that merge to the east to complete the island's isolation from the continent. Several fords and ferries connect the island to the mainland and are key points for military and economic control (these are tolls) of Goa. The main ford is located on the east bank of the island, southeast of Goa, it is the Banastri ford. Goa itself is located well inside the Mandovi estuary, and offers a safe shelter for ships to protect from the monsoon. It has a shipyard protected by a redoubt filled with artillery covering the river. The mouth of the Mandovi estuary is covered by the fortress of Panaji, and between Panaji and Goa stands a village called Ribandar. Panaji is at first a small stone fortress, covered in the neighborhood by fortifications (wood and raised earth) lined with artillery. The “Pas de Banastri” (Banastri ford) is fortified with a stone tower and the same fortifications made of wood and raised earth with artillery.



At first, Portuguese ships cannot venture into an estuary they do not know, at the risk of running aground on sandbanks or shoals. Thanks to the light ships of Timoji, the men of the privateer and a troop of Portuguese soldiers will storm the fortress of Panaji, sneaking under the fire set too high enemy artillery: the garrison of 400 Turkish mercenaries is quickly submerged , and the fortress burned. It is these flames that will deceive Albuquerque, and fall into his hands Goa without further fighting: convinced that these lights of fire come from the city, probably already stormed by his troops, the Portuguese fleet will advance in the estuary. At the height of Ribandar, emissaries of Goa advance in a boat: the military governor has fled, the garrison is weak and helpless. Albuquerque, provided that the Goatis deliver the "Roumes" (Mamluks), promises freedom of worship and low taxes. On 17 February 1510, the fleet anchors in front of the river gate of Goa, the authorities hand over the keys of the city to Albuquerque: Goa is Portuguese!

Goa is Portuguese! Albuquerque discovers the Palace of Adil Shâh, its harem, its porticoes, its terraces, its gardens! The roofs of the city alternate white cupolas, minarets, palm roofs brownish tones and trees of large gardens. In the stables there are horses and elephants for the war. The surrounding countryside is rich in food crops, herds of buffaloes, cows and pigs. In the coconut woods we find a lot of hares and partridges, the rivers are full of fish. The Hindu population, led by its Brahmans, rallies willingly to the Portuguese. Albuquerque convinced his captains to stay in Goa during the monsoon season, which would rehabilitate and improve Goa's fortifications and organize the Portuguese administration. Only the captains of the merchant ships that Albuquerque requisitioned are snubbed. The walls are rehabilitated, fords fortified and equipped with artillery, the men of Timoji occupy positions on the continent. In the shipyard, the Portuguese had found a large Mamluk carrack under construction: it was completed and launched under the Portuguese flag.

Precautions and very appropriate preparations, because the Adil Shah did not give up Goa, and having signed a truce with the Vijanayagar, sends an army of 40,000 men, mostly Turkish mercenaries, Persians and Mamluks, under the command of Turkish General Pulad Khan, take back the city!

The monsoon is on the horizon: the winds are blowing in the storm, the heat and humidity are terrible, the Portuguese ships can no longer take the high seas and Albuquerque and his men are trapped in Goa.

The attitude of the Portuguese stiffened, and several incidents drew the Muslim and Hindu communities against them: anger rumbled. Things will go from bad to worse ...

Timoji's men are driven out of the continent. The enemy is infinitely superior in number and on May 11, 1510 the Pas de Banastri yields. The Portuguese must abandon the fords and retreat to Goa, while Palud Khan passes his army on Tiswari, establishes his camp on the banks of the Zuari, reoccupied the fortress of Panaji. His troops infiltrate the outskirts of Goa where Muslims rise up in their favor. The Portuguese try many sorties but the enemy is everywhere, and the losses are heavy ... The enemy ends up opening breaches in the walls: the Portuguese must evacuate the city on May 31, 1510 and join their ships anchored on the river. Albuquerque now has only 500 valid men.



The Portuguese have two solutions: either they try to brave the monsoon at the risk of seeing their ships sink, or they try to survive as best they can on their ships anchored on the river until the monsoon ended they can put the sails, be reinforced by the next Armada and counter-attack.

Captains of merchant ships want to try their luck against the monsoon, captains of warships want to save their men and their ships and prefer to stay. Albuquerque decide: they all remain!

Then begin 3 terrible months of an "aquatic" war, and this is the most amazing episode of this adventure...

Portuguese ships are anchored in the middle of Mandovi. On the banks, the enemy has installed artillery batteries that regularly bomb the fleet. The monsoon rain is almost continual. Men cannot stand on the bridges because of the rain and enemy fire and live in the bowels of ships, in the wet and dark. Food rots and runs out (fortunately there is no shortage of rainwater). Men can try, at night, to fish from bridges or ports but it is at their own risk. At night, sometimes, the enemy slips silently in boats and tries to approach the ships, the fighting is raging and he is repulsed. The wounded and the sick pile up and cannot be properly treated. Brawls erupt, some captains curse the obstinacy of Albuquerque, some prefer to desert and go to the enemy, becoming Muslims, to escape a death that seems certain ... A renegade named Joao Machado, deserter of the squadron of Cabral in 1500, regularly inform the Portuguese on the intentions of the enemy: he learns in Albuquerque that burning ship are prepared to be hurl against his ships. The threat is such that a raid is launched on the fortress of Panaji. 300 men take their places in the light boats of Timoji and assail Panaji. The enemy camp is looted, cannons and food stocks brought back. It is a success that revives the courage of the Portuguese and demoralizes the enemy. Later, the Portuguese will launch several attacks with their small ships against the still threatening enemy fleet that will not be able to defend itself and will eventually be destroyed ...

But these successes will not be enough to tip the balance in their favor. The Portuguese are not the only ones trapped in their ships: the women of the harem of Adil Shâh, accompanied by their eunuchs, are aboard ! Albuquerque intends to convert them and marry them to his best men. They are parked at the front of the “Capitane” (Admiral ship) La Flor Da Mar, and some Fidalgos despite the prohibitions have taken the habit of discreetly joining them, and the ladies willingly accept their "tributes". Warned by the eunuchs, Albuquerque sent sentinels and, one night, a visitor is captured: Rui Dias De Alenquer. Merciless Albuquerque condemned him to death by hanging: the mutiny broke out, the captains demand that at least this gentleman be beheaded by a sword and not hanged on the yards like a common sailor. Albuquerque makess the leaders to be thrown into chains, and Rui Dias is hanged. The Moors on the banks exult! Then during a sortie against the enemy fleet, the nephew of Albuquerque, a young Fidalgo of 24 years - Dom Antonio Da Noronha - is killed. It is a terrible shock for Albuquerque but also for the Fidalgos, Dom Antonio was the one who led the troops who captured the fortress of Panaji a few months earlier, he was a promising soldier and appreciated by all. It is too much for Albuquerque who, with a heavy heart, gives the order to abandon Goa !

From mid-July, with the monsoon fading, the ships gain one by one the high seas, not without wiping some enemy cannonades. The ship of Albuquerque is the last to leave, August 16, 1510.

After 3 months in an aquatic atmosphere, full of blood, sweat, tears and fire, the Portuguese patch their ships to Anjedive and regain strength.

[Byblos]

Goa: interlude

For several weeks, in Cannanore and Cochin, Albuquerque, while conducting current affairs, will deploy a significant diplomatic activity and prepare for his return to Goa, but discreetly, pretending to target Ormuz and the Red Sea.

A new Armada has arrived, commanded by Diogo Mendes De Vasconcelos: his orders, held by the King himself, are to seize Malacca, source of valuable spices, in East Indies. But Albuquerque will succeed in forcing him to join his ships willingly or unwillingly on his next expeditions, arguing the threat of a new Mamluk fleet. This threat is becoming more precise since even Sultan Mahmud of Gujarat and his vassal Malik Ayyaz de Diu offer the Portuguese a defensive alliance, fearing new disorders and new violence. Albuquerque does not close the door to negotiations, which he will knowingly drag on.

Then Albuquerque will try to rally his captains to the idea of an offensive return to Goa (Remember that Goa is not one of the goals officially designated by King Manuel!). If all agree on the fact that a new Mamluk fleet is a real threat and should be destroyed, captains of merchant ships requisitioned by Albuquerque, having already lost several months trapped in Goa, are loathing. Albuquerque will let these merchant ships fill their holds and return to Portugal, the squadron of Vasconcelos sufficient to considerably strengthen its forces.

[Byblos]

Goa: November 25, 1510

Goa was taken this time in a few hours.

Albuquerque had worked twice as hard: thirty Portuguese ships - Carracks, caravels, galleys and brigantines, not to mention a few small Malabaris warships, all manned by 1,200 men - but had mostly ensured (once again) of Timoji (who came with 60 small warships and 4,000 men) and his father-in-law, King Gersoppa, who sent 15,000 men to attack Goa from the mainland.

The war against the Vijayanagar having resumed, Adil Shâh left only a garrison of 9000 men, mostly mercenaries Tucs or Persians, and renegades. Overwhelmed by the number and ferocity of the attack, the enemy soldiers soon flee, massacred at the fords by the Indian peasants who came to exert their revenge.

 In the city, the Portuguese massacred the Muslim community, men, women and children, perhaps 6,000 victims. Only 500 of the most beautiful women will be spared, who will be baptized and married to Portuguese “Casados”, who take a wife and settle in Goa.

Goa is now Portuguese, the first great city to fall into their power, it immediately became the capital of Estado Da India, the walls restored, a garrison of 400 men installed. Warships patrol the road to Ormuz and divert to the city the ships carrying horses from the Arabian Peninsula, trade that the Portuguese take over for their benefit. The governor of Diu - the famous Malik Ayyaz - congratulates Albuquerque for his victory!

The city fell on November 25, the day of Saint Catherine, and Albuquerque immediately consecrated a church named after the Saint. Goa will be Portuguese for 451 years ...

[Byblos]

Malacca 1511

The Chinese call it "the Sun-eye," the Portuguese say it is "the axle around which everything turns." Malacca, a great port and merchant city, warehouse and source of spices of the East Indies, sees Bengalis, Gujaratis, Persians, Chinese, Arabs and many others. But the political power is weak, the means of defense limited and archaic.

This is Albuquerque's next goal, this time officially designated by King Manuel. A year after taking Goa, on April 20, 1511, Albuquerque sailed to Malacca with 18 ships, 800 Portuguese soldiers and 200 Malabari auxiliaries, burning courtesy to Diogo Mendes De Vasconcelos who had been appointed by the King for this conquest.



The squadron anchored in Malacca on June 28, 1511, and negotiations began: the Sultan would be willing to compose, but his son and son-in-law wanted to resist, helped by the Gujarati merchants. Their rivals the Chinese and Coromandel merchants support the Portuguese (400 Chinese will insist on fighting alongside them!). Negotiations dragging along, the Portuguese land and set fire to the warehouses on the banks, fire that spreads continuously and wreaks havoc, and bombs the city. On July 25, Saint James Day, the assault is given: the Malaccans resist like beautiful devils! Artillery, elephants, barrage of tree trunks, fire pots: the losses are heavy, a truce is decreed.

Albuquerque demands to be able to build a fort, the Sultan refuses: on August 11, 1511 Albuquerque makes disembark his troops who undertake the construction of the fort on the site of the Great Mosque which was burned. We soon learn that the Sultan and his followers left the city and took refuge in the jungles of the hinterland.

Malacca is taken: the booty taken in the abandoned palace is huge.

One by one, the merchants come back and the trade restarts: Albuquerque does not change the old customs, which want the merchants to take care of their business freely as long as they pay taxes. The Gujarati merchants have done everything to put a spoke in their wheels (they have already lost Goa!) But their presence is so essential in the commercial networks (Genevieve Bouchon speaks of a Gujarati thalassocracy) that Albuquerque decides to deal with them. The Muslims of Malacca are of very free morals, and Albuquerque also decides to give them great freedom, including worship. The warehouses are quickly rebuilt, the Portuguese are beating money ...

At the sight of his worm-eaten ships, of his exhausted men, of that fort which was painfully being built up by collecting the stones in the smoking ruins, Albuquerque knew that the Sultan of Malacca was already preparing his revenge, and that he could not resist a well-prepared counterattack (Remember Goa!), and he knew how to act intelligently. Joining the merchants who were favorable to him (those of Coromandel, Hindus, Buddhists), he interfered in the commercial networks of the East Indies rather than trying to take control, and exercising intense diplomatic activity resulting that the sovereignty of the Portuguese over Malacca was soon recognized by many sovereigns: Pegou, Majopahit, Menancabo, and many others. The Sultan of Malacca will not take back his city ...

Albuquerque spent five months in Malacca, then resumed the sea, leaving behind 300 men in garrison and a squadron of 10 ships.

[Byblos]

Cochin, Goa, Red Sea, Calicut

Returning to Cochin, Albuquerque finds there a coterie formed of all his enemies, who send letters to Portugal to complain to the King: his reputation is tarnished and he will also write long letters to the King to explain his actions .

In Goa an uprising took place and followers of the Adil Shah, led by Rasul Khan, seized and hold the citadel but the monsoon and lack of strengths differ Albuquerque's reaction. It was not until September 10, 1512 that Albuquerque went to Goa with 14 ships and 1700 soldiers. After a short siege Rasul Khan surrenders and the rebels are harshly punished: Goa will not rise again ...

The year 1513 is occupied by a raid in the Red Sea, attempts against Aden and Jeddah that end in failures ...




The Samorin of Calicut is no longer able to oppose the Portuguese, whose positions have been considerably strengthened on the coast of Malabar, now controlling the bulk of the trade: he is assassinated at the instigation of Albuquerque, his successor is obliged to sign the peace (the war lasted since 1512). The Portuguese build a fort, can buy pepper and ginger at negotiated prices, and receive a tribute every year.

During the year 1514, residing in Goa, Albuquerque will devote himself to diplomacy, for example to get the Portuguese to build a fort in Diu. He receives a rhinoceros gift from the Sultan of Gujarat, and sends it to Portugal: King Manuel will send it as a gift to Pope Leo X. The animal will be sketched in ink on wood by the famous German artist Albrecht Dürer in 1515.



Negotiations are even opened with the Shâh Ismail of Persia to conclude an offensive alliance against the Sultan Mamluk of Egypt ...

Albuquerque encourages his men to marry Indian women: a new society is being born.